Experimental issues in emotion research and assessment in children
Abstract
The field of research in emotions has grown considerably, and its evaluation has become one of the main objectives of research in contemporary psychology. However, the measurement of emotions presents a set of difficulties, some more general and shared with other psychological constructs, and others of a specific nature, specific to the field of study. In this paper, we analyze the methodological aspects of research in emotions, the selection of stimuli that elicit emotions and the differences associated with age. Based on this analysis, an integrative approach is proposed to the discrete and dimensional models of emotions and the use of different measurement tools to be able to record the different levels of emotional response. In addition, we propose the use of standardized visual stimulus bases as a more efficient tool to elicit emotions, and the need to have an extensive and appropriate basis for working with children. Finally, ethical aspects are taken into account both for the procedure and for the selection of emotional stimuli in children.
Downloads
References
American Psychological Association (2002). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 57, 1060-1073. https://doi. org/10.1037/0003-066X.57.12.1060
Barden, R. C., Garber, J., Duncan, S. W., & Masters, J. C. (1981). Cumulative effects of induced affective states in children: Accentuation, inoculation, and remediation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 750- 760. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.40.4.750
Beaupré, M., Cheung, N., & Hess, U. (2000). The Montreal set of facial displays of emotion [Slides]. Available from Ursula Hess, Department of Psychology, University of Quebec at Montreal, PO Box, 8888.
Berkowitz L., Jaffee S., Jo E., & Troccoli B. (2000). On the correction of feeling- induced judgemental biases. En J.P. Forgas (Eds), Feeling and thinking: The role of affect in social cognition (pp. 131-152). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Bradley, M. M. (2009). Natural selective attention: Orienting and emotion. Psychophysiology, 46, 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00702.x
Bradley, M.M., & Lang P.J. (2007). The international Affective Picture System (IAPS) in the Study of Emotion and Attention. En Coan, J. A., & Allen, J. J.(Eds.) Handbook of Emotion Elicitation and Assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.
Blumberg, S. H., & Izard, C. E. (1986). Discriminating patterns of emotions in 10- and 11-year-old children’s anxiety and depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 852–857. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.4.852
Boletín Oficial de la República Argentina (Marzo, 1984). Ley 23.052 de Régimen de calificación de películas cinematográficas. Recuperado el 25 de Mayo de 2017 de http://servicios.infoleg.gob.ar/infolegInternet/anexos/25000-29999/28154/ norma.htm
Boletín Oficial de la República Argentina (Octubre, 2009). Ley 26.522 de Servicios de Comunicación Audiovisual. Recuperado el 25 de Mayo de 2017 de https:// www.enacom.gob.ar/multimedia/normativas/2009/Ley%2026522.pdf
Bowlby, J. (1985). The role of childhood experience in cognitive disturbance. In Cognition and psychotherapy (pp. 181-200). Plenum Press New York: Springer US. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4684-7562-3_6
Bradley, M.M., & Lang P.J. (2007). The international Affective Picture System (IAPS) in the Study of Emotion and Attention. En J. A. Coan J. J. Allen (Eds.), Handbook of Emotion Elicitation and Assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.
Brenner, E. (2000). Mood induction in children: Methodological issues and clinical implications. Review of General Psychology, 4, 264-283. http://dx.doi. org/10.1037/1089-2680.4.3.264
Bujarski, S. J., Mischel, E., Dutton, C., Steele, J. S., & Cisler, J. (2015). The Elicitation and Assessment of Emotional Responding. En K.A. Babson & M.T. Feldner (Ed.).Sleep and Affect: Assessment, Theory, and Clinical Implications. (pp.91-119) USA, Academic Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12- 417188-6.00005-0
Bunaciu, L., Leen-Feldner, E. W., Blumenthal, H., Knapp, A. A., Badour, C. L., & Feldner, M. T. (2014). An experimental test of the effects of parental modeling on panic-relevant escape and avoidance among adolescents. Behavior Therapy, 45, 517–529. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2014.02.011.
Campos, J. J., Frankel, C. B., & Camras, L. (2004). On the nature of emotion regulation. Child Development, 75, 377-394. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467- 8624.2004.00681.x
Coan, J. A., & Allen, J. J. (2007). Handbook of emotion elicitation and assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.
Cordon, I. M., Melinder, A. M., Goodman, G. S., & Edelstein, R. S. (2013). Children’s and adults’ memory for emotional pictures: Examining age- related patterns using the Developmental Affective Photo System. Journal of experimental child psychology, 114, 339-356. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. jecp.2012.08.004
Cuthbert, B. N., Schupp, H. T., Bradley, M. M., Birbaumer, N., & Lang, P. J. (2000). Brain potentials in affective picture processing: Covariation with autonomic arousal and affective report. Biological Psychology, 52, 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-0511(99)00044-7
Damasio, A. R., Grabowski, T. J., Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Ponto, L. L., Parvizi, J., & Hichwa, R. D. (2000). Distinctive patterns of subcortical and cortical brain activation associated with self-generated emotions and feelings. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 1049-1056. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/79871
Dan-Glauser, E. S., & Scherer, K. R. (2011). The Geneva affective picture database (GAPED): a new 730-picture database focusing on valence and normative significance. Behavior Research Methods, 43, 468-477. http:// dx.doi.org/10.3758/s13428-011-0064-1
Diener, E., Smith, H., & Fujita, F. (1995). The personality structure of affect. Journal of personality and social psychology, 69, 130-141. http://dx.doi. org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.1.130
Duncan, S., & Barrett, L.F. (2007) Affect is a form of cognition: A neurobiological analysis. Cognition & Emotion, 21, 1184-1211. http://dx.doi. org/10.1080/02699930701437931
Ekman, P. (1992). Are there basic emotions?. Psychological Review, 99, 550–553. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1037/0033-295X.99.3.550
Ekman, P. (1993). Facial expression and emotion. American Psychologist, 48, 384. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.48.4.384
Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1976). Measuring facial movement. Environmental psychology and nonverbal behavior, 1, 56-75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ BF01115465
Fernández-Abascal, E. G., Rodríguez, B. G., Sánchez, M. P. J., Díaz, M. D. M., & Sánchez, F. J. D. (2010). Psicología de la emoción. Madrid: Editorial Universitaria Ramón Areces.
Flack ,W.F., Laird, J.D., & Cavallaro, L.A.(1999). Additive effects of facial expressions and postures on emotional feelings. European Journal of Social Psychology, 29, 22-235.http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099- 0992(199903/05)29:2/3<203::AID-EJSP924>3.0.CO;2-8
Frijda, N. H. & Scherer, K. R. (2009). Emotion definitions (psychological perspectives). En D. Sander & K. R. Scherer (Eds.), Oxford companion to emotion and the affective sciences. New York: Oxford University Press.
Forns, M. (1993). Evaluación psicológica infantil. En F. Silva Moreno: Evaluación Psicológica en niños y adolescentes. España: Síntesis.
Fox, N. A., & Henderson, H. A. (2007). Considerations in studying emotion in infants and children. En J.A. Coan, & J.J. Allen (Ed) .Handbook of emotion elicitation and assessment, 349. New York: Oxford University Press.
Glaser, W. R., & Glaser, M. O. (1989). Context effects in stroop-like word and picture processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118, 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.118.1.13
Greene, S., & Hogan, D. (Eds.). (2005). Researching children’s experience: Approaches and methods. London:Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781849209823
Gray, J. A. (1990). Brain Systems that Mediate both Emotion and Cognition. Cognition & Emotion, 4, 269-288. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699939008410799.
Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 224–237. http://dx.doi. org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224
Grühn, D., & Scheibe, S. (2008). Age-related differences in valence and arousal ratings of pictures from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS): Do ratings become more extreme with age?. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 512–521. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.3758/BRM.40.2.512
Hajcak, G., & Dennis, T. A. (2009). Brain Potentials During Affective Picture Processing in Children. Biological Psychology, 80, 333–338. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.11.006
Hewig, J., Hagemann, D., Seifert, J., Gollwitzer, M., Naumann, E., & Bartussek, D. (2005). A revised film set for the induction of basic emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 19, 1095–1109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699930541000084.
Hogan, T. P. (2015). Pruebas psicológicas: una introducción práctica. México: Editorial El Manual Moderno.
Heim, S., Benasich, A. A., & Keil, A. (2013). Distraction by emotion in early adolescence:Affective facilitation and interference during the attentional blink. Frontiers in Developmental Psychology, 4, 580. http://dx.doi. org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00580.
Hermans, D., & De Houwer, J. (1994). Affective and subjective familiarity ratings of 740 Dutch words. Psychologica Belgica, 34, 115-139.Recuperado de https:// ppw.kuleuven.be/apps/clep/publications/pdfs/int_ pub_212.pdf
Herz, R. S. (1996). A comparison of olfactory, tactile and visual as associated memory cues. Chemical Senses, 21, 614–615. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/ bjh025
Hewig, J., Hagemann, D., Seifert, J., Gollwitzer, M., Naumann, E., & Bartussek, D. (2005). Brief report. Cognition & Emotion, 19, 1095-1109. https://doi. org/10.1080/02699930541000084.
Horvat, M., Popović, S., & Ćosić, K. (2012, mayo). Towards semantic and affective coupling in emotionally annotated databases.Trabajo presentado en MIPRO IEEE Proceedings of the 35th International Convention, Opatija, Croacia, 1003-1008.Recuperado de http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6240791/
Kimonis, E. R., Frick, P. J., Fazekas, H., & Loney, B. R. (2006). Psychopathy, aggression, and the processing of emotional stimuli in non-referred girls and boys. Behavioral Sciences & The Law, 24, 21–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ bsl.668
Koelsch, S., Jacobs, A. M., Menninghaus, W., Liebal, K., Klann-Delius, G., von Scheve, C. et al. (2015). The quartet theory of human emotions: an integrative and neurofunctional model. Physics of life reviews, 13, 1-27. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.plrev.2015.03.001
Kory, J., & D’Mello, S. (2014). Affect elicitation for affective computing. En Calvo, R., D’Mello, S., Gratch, J. & Kappas, A (Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Affective Computing (pp.371-383). New York, Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199942237.013.001
Kuppens, P., Tuerlinckx, F., Russell, J. A., & Barrett, L. F. (2013). The relation between valence and arousal in subjective experience. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 917-940. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0030811
Lane, R. D., Chua, P. M., & Dolan, R. J. (1999). Common effects of emotional valence, arousal and attention on neural activation during visual processing of pictures. Neuropsychologia, 37, 989–997. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0028- 3932(99)00017-2
Lang, P. J. (1979). A bioinformational theory of emotional imagery. Psychophysiology, 16, 495–512. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1979. tb01511.x
Lang, P. J. (1995). The emotion probe: Studies of motivation and attention. American Psychologist, 50, 371-385. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.5.372
Lang, P. J., Greenwald, M. K., Bradley, M. M., & Hamm, A. O. (1993). Looking at pictures: Affective, facial, visceral, and behavioral reactions. Psychophysiology, 30, 261–273. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.1993. tb03352.x
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (1999). International affective picture system (IAPS): Instruction manual and affective ratings. (Technical Report No. A-4). Gainsville, Florida: University of Florida, Center for Research in Psychophysiology.
Lang, P. J., Bradley, M. M., & Cuthbert, B. N. (2008). International affective picture system (IAPS): Affective ratings of pictures and instruction manual. (Technical Report No. A-8). Gainesville, FL: University of Florida, Center for Research in Psychophysiology.
Lemos, V. (2005). Construcción y validación de una Escala para la Evaluación de la Deseabilidad Social Infantil (EDESI). Interdisciplinaria, 22, 77-96. Recuperado de http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=18022104
Lemos, V. (Agosto, 2012). La evaluación infantil: Desafíos y propuestas. Conferencia invitada presentada en el XV Congreso Latinoamericano de ALAMOC (Asociación Latinoamericana de Análisis, Modificación del Comportamiento y Terapia Cognitiva Conductual): Las terapias cognitivas en el siglo XXI. Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Lemos, V. (2013). Considerations about the child assessment: Challenges and proposals. The UB Journal of Psychology, 43, 189-199. Recuperado de http:// www.raco.cat/index.php/AnuarioPsicologia/article/view/271072/358636
Lench, H. C., Flores, S. A., & Bench, S. W. (2011). Discrete emotions predict changes in cognition, judgment, experience, behavior, and physiology: a meta- analysis of experimental emotion elicitations. Psychological bulletin, 137, 834. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0024244
Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic emotion questions. Emotion Review, 3, 379–386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410743.
LoBue, V., & Thrasher, C. (2014). The Child Affective Facial Expression (CAFE) set: validity and reliability from untrained adults. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1532. http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.01532
Luna, F., & Bertomeu, M. J. (2009). Comités de ética en la Argentina. Revista bioética, 6. Recuperado de http://revistabioetica.cfm.org.br/index.php/revista_ bioetica/article/view/346/413
Lundqvist, D., Flykt, A., & Öhman, A. (1998). The Karolinska Directed Emotional Faces – KDEF. [CD-ROM].Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Psychology section, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden. ISBN 91-630-7164-9.
Marchewka, A., Żurawski, Ł., Jednoróg, K., & Grabowska, A. (2014). The Nencki Affective Picture System (NAPS): Introduction to a novel, standardized, wide- range, high-quality, realistic picture database. Behavior research methods, 46, 596-610. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.3758/s13428-013-0379-1.
Matsumoto, D. (2001). Culture and emotion. En D. Matsumoto (Ed.), The handbook of culture and psychology (pp. 171-194). Nueva York: Oxford University Press
Matsumoto, D., & Ekman, P. (1988). Japanese and Caucasian facial expressions of emotion (JACFEE) and neural faces (JACNeuF) [Slides]. Human Interaction Laboratory, University of California, San Francisco, 401 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94143.
Mauss, I. B., & Robinson, M. D. (2009). Measures of emotion: A review. Cognition & Emotion, 23, 209–237. http://doi.org/10.1080/02699930802204677
McManis, M. H., Bradley, M.M., Berg,W. K., Cuthbert, B. N., & Lang, P. J. (2001). Emotional reactions in children: Verbal, physiological, and behavioral responses to affective pictures. Psychophysiology, 38, 222–231. http://doi.org/ 10.1111/1469-8986.3820222
Mina, L. S. (2016). Procesamiento emocional en niños de edad escolar: Diferencias según edad y género (Tesis de grado, Facultad de Psicología de la Universidad de Mar del Plata).Recuperada de http://rpsico.mdp.edu.ar/ handle/123456789/530
Moltó, J. (1995). Psicología de las emociones: entre la biología y la cultura. España, Valencia: Albatros.
Okon-Singer, H., Lichtenstein-Vidne, L., & Cohen, N. (2013). Dynamic modulation of emotional processing. Biological Psychology, 92, 480-491. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.05.010
Osgood, C. E. (1952). The nature and measurement of meaning. Psychological Bulletin, 49,197-237. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0055737
Pineles, S., Suvak, M., Liverant, G., Gregor, K., Wisco, B., Pitman, R., et al. (2013). Psychophysiological reactivity, subjective distress, and their associations with PTSD diagnosis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122, 635–644. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0033942.
Plutchik, R. (2001). The nature of emotions—Human emotions have deep evolutionary roots, a fact that may explain their complexity and provide tools for clinical practice. American Scientist, 89, 344–350. http://dx.doi. org/10.1511/2001.28.739.
Reeve, J. M. (2009). Motivación y emoción. México: Mac Graw–Hill.
Rice, J. , Levine, L. J., & Pizarro, D. (2007). “Just stop thinking about it”: effects of emotional disengagement on children’s memory for educational material. Emotion, 7,812–823. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.4.812
Ribeiro, R. L., Pompéia, S., & Bueno, O. F. A. (2005). Comparison of Brazilian and American norms for the International Affective Picture System (IAPS). Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatría, 27, 208– 215. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1590/ S1516-44462005000300009
Schwarz, N. (2000). Emotion, cognition, and decision making. Cognition & Emotion, 14,433-440. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/026999300402745
Storbeck, J. & Clore, G. (2007). On the interdependence of cognition and emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 21, 1212-1237. http://dx.doi. org/10.1080/02699930701438020
Tottenham, N., Tanaka, J. W., Leon, A. C., McCarry, T., Nurse, M., Hare, T. A. & Nelson, C. (2009). The NimStim set of facial expressions: judgments from untrained research participants. Psychiatry Research, 168, 242-249. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.05.006
Vila, J., Sánchez, M., Ramírez, I., Fernández, M. C., Cobos, P., Rodríguez, S., & Moltó, J. (2001). The International affective picture system (IAPS): Spanish adaptation. Second part. Revista de Psicología General y Aplicada, 54, 635- 657.
Waters, A. M., Lipp, O. V., & Spence, S. H. (2005). The effects of affective picture stimuli on blink modulation in adults and children. Biological psychology, 68, 257-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2004.05.002
Wessa, M., Kanske, P., Neumeister, P., Bode, K., Heissler, J., & Schönfelder, S. (2010). EmoPicS: subjective and psychophysiological evaluation of new imagery for clinical biopsychological research. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy. 1, 11-77.
Watson, D. & Clark, L.A. (1997) Measurement and Mismeasurement of Mood: Recurrent and Emergent issues, Journal of Personality Assessment, 68, 267- 296, http//:dx.doi.org/10.1207/ s15327752jpa6802_4
Watson, D., & Naragon-Gainey, K. (2014). Personality, emotions, and the emotional disorders. Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 422-442. http://dx.doi. org/10.1177/2167702614536162
Westermann, R., Spies, K., Stahl, G., & Hesse, F. (1996). Relative effectiveness and validity of mood induction procedure: A meta-analysis. European Journal of Social Psychology, 26, 557–580. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099- 0992(199607)26:4<557::AID-EJSP769>3.0.CO;2-4.
Yiend, J. (2010). The effects of emotion on attention: A review of attentional processing of emotional information. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 3-47. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699930903205698
Zeman, J., Klimes-Dougan, B., Cassano, M., & Adrian, M. (2007). Measurement issues in emotion research with children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 14, 377-401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468- 2850.2007.00098.x
Authors who publish with this journal agree to grant Psicodebate copyright and right of publication and accept the work being licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the authors and Psicodebate.
